Clauses
Clauses are the building blocks of sentences. Mastering them improves clarity, correctness, and versatility in both writing and speaking. Clauses help structure sentences logically, making your writing and speech more coherent. Knowing how to use clauses prevents sentence fragments or run-ons.
Table of Contents
1.Clauses
1.1Definition
A clause is a group of words that contains a subject and a verb. It can function as a whole sentence (a main clause) or as part of a sentence ( a subordinate clause).
| Main Clause | Subordinate Clause (needs more information to be a full sentence) |
|---|---|
| also called Independent Clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence |
also called Dependent Clause does not express a complete thought and cannot stand alone; needs to be connected to an independent clause. |
| Examples: | Examples: |
| She left the party early. I stayed home. We’ll go out. You’ll pass the test. |
Because she was tired Because it was raining When the meeting ends If you study hard |
Practice Examples
When the bell rings ( _____ ), the class will end ( _____ ).
She laughed ( _____ ) because the joke was funny ( _____ ) though she didn't understand it ( _____ ).
If you study hard ( _____ ), you will pass ( _____ ) unless the test is too difficult ( _____ ).
1.2Conjunctions
Here we will focus on two types of conjunctions: coordinating and subordinating. Coordinating conjunctions connect words, phrases, or independent clauses (main) of equal importance, while subordinating conjunctions link a subordinate (dependent) clause to an independent one (main), showing relationships like cause, time, or condition.
| Type | Function | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Coordinating | join equal parts | and, but, or She loves painting, and she takes art classes every weekend. He wanted to join us, but he had too much work to do. We can watch a movie at home, or we can go to the cinema. |
| Subordinating | join a dependent clause to an independent one | because, when,that, which... She stayed home because she wasn’t feeling well. Call me when you arrive at the station. I know that she’s telling the truth. He gave me a book, which I really enjoyed. |
Practice Examples
She loves painting, _____ she takes art classes every weekend.
He wanted to join us, _____ he had too much work to do.
We can watch a movie at home, _____ we can go to the cinema.
1.3Punctuation
When there are several main clauses in a sentence, they are normally separated by conjunctions. If there are two or more complete sentences joined with a coordinating conjunction, then a comma is required before the conjunction. Commas are often used to separate longer or more complicated clauses. Shorter pairs can be connected without commas.
Some subordinate clauses can go either first or last in a sentence. When a subordinate clause begins a sentence, it is normally separated by a comma.
| Example | Comment |
|---|---|
| She came home and the others went swimming. | main clause + main clause Shorter pairs can be connected without commas |
| She had to go return home later then we'd planned , and the others were able to spend some time in a swimming pool. | main clause + main clause longer or more complicated clauses |
| If you are in town , we could have a coffee together. | subordinate clause + main clause subordinate clause begins the sentence |
| We could have a coffee together if you are in town. | main clause + subordinate clause subordinate clause ends the sentence |
You can use a comma before an if-, time-, reason-, or concessive-clause at the end of a sentence only to emphasize contrast, drama, or an afterthought, but omit it for neutral statements.
for punctuation in Relative Clauses, see the topic Relative Clauses
2.Subordinate Clauses / Types
2.1Time / When?
Time clauses answer the question WHEN
We use time clauses to show when something happens in relation to something else. A time clause is usually a subordinate clause and must be connected to a main (independent) clause.
In time clauses with future meaning we use present tenses (Simple, Progressive (Continuous), Perfect) instead of future tenses.
Even when talking about the future, we use present tenses in time clauses instead of future tenses!
| Introductory word | Example | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| when | When she opened the door, the cat ran outside. When he arrives, we’ll start the meeting. |
Refers to the point in time an event happens. future meaning → Present tense! |
| after | After you finish your homework, we’ll go for a walk. | Refers to something that happens later in time. future meaning → Present tense! |
| as | As I was leaving the house, it suddenly began to rain. | Refers to actions happening at the same time |
| as soon as | As soon as she gets here, we’ll begin. | Refers to the moment something happens immediately after another. future meaning → Present tense! |
| before | Can you call me before you leave for the airport? | Refers to something that happens earlier in time. |
| while | While you are cooking, I’ll be setting the table. | Refers to actions happening at the same time. future meaning → Present tense! |
| since | We’ve been friends since we met in college. | Refers to the starting point of a continuing action |
| till/until | Don’t start doing the exercises till you have learnt the rules. | Refers to the time up to the point something happens. future meaning → Present tense! Avoid negative main verbs after till or until! |
| once | Once the guests arrive, dinner will be served. | Refers to the time after a condition is fulfilled. future meaning → Present tense! |
| whenever | Whenever you arrive, just text me. | Refers to something that happens on any or every repeated occasion, including in the future. |
| the minute/the moment | The moment I see him, I’ll tell him the news. | Refers to a very specific point in time when something begins. future meaning → Present tense! |
| every/each time | Every time I visit London, I discover something new. | Refers to something that happens on each repeated occasion. |
Introductory word when does not necessarily begin time clauses. To identify a clause it is necessary to think of the question it answers.
Practice Examples
When he (arrive) _____ , I'll give him the key.
He'll be ready as soon as you (arrive) _____ .
I'll stay in bed till the alarm (strike) _____ seven.
2.2If- / On What Condition?
If-clauses answer the question ON WHAT CONDITION?
An if clause is a subordinate (dependent) clause that expresses a condition. We use if-clauses to show a condition that must be met for the main clause to occur. An if- clause is usually a subordinate clause and must be connected to a main (independent) clause.
In if- clauses with future meaning we use present tenses (Simple, Progressive (Continuous), Perfect) instead of future tenses.
Even when talking about the future, we use present tenses in time clauses instead of future tenses!
| Introductory word | Example | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| if | If you arrive early, we can get good seats. |
This presents a simple condition - getting good seats depends on arriving early. future meaning → Present tense! |
| unless | Unless you hurry, you'll miss the bus. | This means if not - you'll miss the bus if you don't hurry. It expresses a negative condition. future meaning → Present tense! Avoid negative main verbs after unless! |
| suppose/supposing | Suppose it snows tomorrow, what will we do? Supposing you won the lottery, how would you spend the money? |
These introduce hypothetical situations for consideration - what if scenarios that may or may not happen. future meaning → Present tense! |
| provided/providing | You can borrow my car provided you return it by Sunday. I'll help you with homework providing you promise to try harder. |
These set specific conditions that must be met - only if or on the condition that. future meaning → Present tense! |
| on condition that | I'll lend you money on condition that you pay me back next week. | This establishes a firm requirement or stipulation that must be fulfilled for the main action to occur. future meaning → Present tense! |
| in case | Take an umbrella in case it rains. | This expresses preparation for a possibility - taking precautions against something that might happen.future meaning → Present tense! |
Introductory word if does not necessarily begin if- clauses. To identify a clause it is necessary to think of the question it answers.
Practice Examples
_____ I had studied harder, I would have passed the exam.(I didn't study enough, so I failed.)
_____ she knew about it, she would care about her friend.(She doesn't know about it now, but if she did, she would care.)
_____ we had left earlier, we wouldn't have missed the train.(We didn't leave early enough, so we missed the train.)
2.3Noun / What?
Noun clauses answer the question WHAT?
We use noun clauses when we want to talk about something — for example, a thought, an idea, a fact, or a question — inside a larger sentence. To report what someone said, thought, or asked. To express unknown or uncertain information. To complete ideas introduced by verbs like know, think, ask, wonder, remember, etc. A noun clause is usually a subordinate clause and must be connected to a main (independent) clause.
| Introductory word | Example | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| who | I don't know who called you last night. | The noun clause who called you last night acts as the direct object of know - it identifies an unknown person. |
| what | I remember what I promised to do. | The noun clause what I promised to do serves as the direct object of the verb remember. It answers the question What do you remember? |
| where | She told me where she hid the keys. | The noun clause where she hid the keys acts as the direct object, specifying a location. |
| how | I understand how you feel about this situation. | The noun clause how you feel about this situation serves as the direct object, describing the manner or way of feeling. |
| which | He couldn't decide which option was better. | The noun clause which option was better acts as the direct object, referring to a choice between alternatives. |
| whose | We discovered whose car was blocking the driveway. | The noun clause whose car was blocking the driveway serves as the direct object, indicating possession or ownership. |
| when | Nobody knows when the meeting will start. | The noun clause when the meeting will start acts as the direct object, specifying a time. |
| whom | I forgot whom I was supposed to contact. | The noun clause whom I was supposed to contact serves as the direct object, identifying a person (formal usage). |
| why | The teacher explained why the experiment failed. | The noun clause why the experiment failed acts as the direct object, providing a reason or cause. |
| if | I wonder if she will come to the party. | The noun clause if she will come to the party serves as the direct object, expressing uncertainty about a possibility. |
| whether | We need to decide whether we should leave early. | The noun clause whether we should leave early acts as the direct object, presenting two alternatives (leave early or not). |
| that | Everyone believes that honesty is important. | The noun clause that honesty is important serves as the direct object, stating a fact or opinion. That can often be omitted. |
Introductory words when and if do not necessarily begin time clauses or if-clauses, respectively. To identify a clause it is necessary to think of the question it answers.
Practice Examples
The detective finally revealed _____ had stolen the priceless painting.
She couldn't believe _____ he had just confessed.
The treasure map showed _____ the ancient gold was buried.
2.4Reason / Why?
Clauses of Reason answer the question WHY?
These clauses explain why something happens or the reason behind an action or situation. They are subordinate clauses (dependent) and must connect to a main (independent) clause.
There are quite a lot of possible beginnings.
| Introductory word | Example | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| because | I stayed home because I was feeling sick. | Gives the direct reason for staying home - sickness caused the decision. |
| since | Since it's raining, we'll postpone the picnic. We'll postpone the picnic since it's raining. |
The rain is the logical reason for changing plans. |
| as | As the store was closed, we couldn't buy groceries. We couldn't buy groceries as the store was closed. |
The closed store explains why shopping was impossible. |
| for (formal/literary) |
He couldn't attend the meeting, for he was out of town. | Being out of town is the formal explanation for his absence. For is more formal/literary and sounds awkward in everyday speech. |
| now that | Now that you're here, we can start the presentation. We can start the presentation now that you're here. |
Your arrival creates the condition/reason that makes starting possible. |
| seeing that | Seeing that everyone is ready, let's begin. Let's begin seeing that everyone is ready. |
Everyone's readiness provides the logical reason to start. |
| considering that | Considering that it's late, we should leave soon. We should leave soon considering that it's late. |
The lateness of the hour is the reason supporting the decision to leave. |
| given that | Given that the weather is bad, the flight may be delayed. The flight may be delayed given that the weather is bad. |
Bad weather provides the factual basis for expecting delays. |
| in view of the fact that normally at the beginning of a sentence otherwise sounds awkward |
In view of the fact that costs have risen, we need to adjust our budget. | Rising costs are the formal reason requiring budget changes. |
| due to the fact that normally at the beginning of a sentence otherwise sounds awkward |
Due to the fact that traffic was heavy, I arrived late. | Heavy traffic directly caused the lateness. |
| on account of the fact that formal normally at the beginning of a sentence otherwise sounds awkward |
On account of the fact that he was ill, he missed the exam. | Illness is the formal reason explaining the missed exam. |
| inasmuch as very formal normally at the beginning of a sentence otherwise sounds awkward |
Inasmuch as the evidence is inconclusive, we cannot make a decision. | Inconclusive evidence provides the logical basis for postponing the decision. |
Practice Examples
_____ the financial report contained errors, the board requested a revision. (Direct cause-effect in business.)
_____ the CEO approved the proposal, we can proceed with implementation. (Neutral, logical reason.)
_____ the deadline was extended, the team prioritized quality over speed. (Balanced, professional tone.)
2.5Purpose / What For?
Clauses of Purpose answer the question WHAT FOR?
These clauses explain how to express intentions or goals. They are subordinate clauses (dependent) and must connect to a main (independent) clause.
| Introductory word | Example | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| so that | I left early so that my family could have dinner together. | My action (leaving early) was done with the purpose of benefiting my family - enabling them to eat together. |
| in order that | The government reduced taxes in order that businesses might prosper. | The government's tax reduction was done with the formal purpose of helping businesses succeed. |
| These clauses are necessary when the person to whom the purpose refers is different from the subject of the main clause or when the original subject is stated again. Changing subjects shows how one person's action is specifically intended to benefit, affect, or influence another person or group, creating clear purpose relationships between different parties. |
|---|
| Different Subjects | Original Subject Stated Again |
|---|---|
| We turned down the music so that the neighbors wouldn't complain. | She spoke quietly so that she wouldn't wake the baby. |
| She spoke quietly in order that the baby would not wake. | We saved money so that we could buy a house. |
| The company invested in training in order that employees would be more skilled. | He studied diligently in order that he should succeed. |
Otherwise purpose is expressed by infinitives sometimes preceded by in order to or so as (not) to.
| Introductory words | Example | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| simple TO most natural and common in everyday speech |
She bought a camera to take better photos. | Her camera purchase was motivated by the goal of improving her photography quality. |
| in order to more formal and deliberate-sounding |
She bought a camera in order to take better photos. | |
| so as to formal, often used in writing to avoid repetition |
She bought a camera so as to take better photos. | |
| so as not to | She tiptoed so as not to wake her roommate. | She tiptoed. Her intention was not to wake her roommate. used to express negative purpose. |
| in order not to | We saved money in order not to go into debt. | Financial saving was done with the formal aim of avoiding debt. used to express negative purpose. |
Practice Examples
I muted your notifications _____ I could preserve my last remaining brain cells.
The company installed biometric scanners _____ employees might feel both monitored and 'secure.'
He proofread his text _____ autocorrect wouldn't sabotage him again.
2.6Concession / Despite What?
Clauses of Concession answer the question DESPITE WHAT?
These clauses give information that contrasts with or opposes the facts in the main clause in an unexpected way. They show that something happens despite an obstacle or contrary expectation. Concession clauses show that the expected result doesn't happen, or that something occurs despite obstacles.We can use many different structures and patterns to express concession.
| Introductory words | Example | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| although | Although it was raining, we went for a walk. We went for a walk although it was raining. |
Despite the rain (obstacle), we still walked - unexpected action given the weather. |
| though | Though he studied hard, he failed the exam. He failed the exam though he studied hard. |
Despite hard studying (expected success), failure occurred - surprising result. |
| even though | Even though she was tired, she finished her work. She finished her work even though she was tired. |
Despite tiredness (reason to stop), she completed the task - emphasizes the contrast. |
| while meaning although |
While I understand your point, I disagree with you. I disagree while I understand your point. |
Despite understanding (which might lead to agreement), disagreement remains. |
| much as | Much as I'd like to help, I don't have time. rarely used at end |
Despite wanting to help, time constraints prevent it. |
| -ever however,whatever,whoever etc = no matter how, what, who etc |
However hard he tried, he couldn't solve the problem. |
Despite maximum effort, success didn't occur. |
| Whichever day you visit, I won't be at home. | It makes no difference what day you choose to visit me - whether it's Monday, Tuesday, or any other day - because I will be away from home on all possible days you might choose. | |
| in spite of the fact that can be at beginning, awkward at end |
In spite of the fact that he was warned, he continued. | Warning (reason to stop) didn't change his behavior. |
| despite the fact that can be at beginning, awkward at end |
Despite the fact that it was expensive, she bought the dress. | High cost (reason not to buy) didn't prevent the purchase. |
| notwithstanding the fact that very formal usually at beginning |
Notwithstanding the fact that he was inexperienced, he got the job. | Lack of experience (obstacle to hiring) didn't prevent employment. |
| no matter how/what/where/when | No matter how much I practice, I can't play that song. | Regardless of practice amount, the skill remains elusive. |
Practice Examples
_____ the cat had five comfy beds, she slept in a shoebox. (unexpected behavior)
_____ I followed the recipe exactly, my cake still exploded. (unexpected surprising result)
_____ he trained with ninjas, he couldn't open a pickle jar. (unexpected disappointing result)
2.7Relative Defining / Which One?
Defining relative clauses provide essential information that identifies or defines which person, thing, or place we are talking about. Without this information, the sentence would be unclear or incomplete. Defining relative clauses specify and identify the preceding noun by providing crucial details that separate it from all other nouns of the same type.
No commas around the clause!
| Introductory words relative pronouns |
Usage | Example |
|---|---|---|
| who | People (subject) | The man who called yesterday wants to buy the car. |
| whom | People (formal object) | The person whom you met is my cousin. |
| whose | Possession (people/things) | The student whose essay won first prize gets a scholarship. I stayed at a hotel whose rooms overlooked the sea. |
| which | Things/animals (subject or object) | The book which I lent you is overdue. The dog which bit me was taken to the vet. |
| that | People/things (subject or object, informal) | The movie that we watched was excellent. She’s the person that helped me at the airport. |
| where | Places | This is the house where I grew up. |
| when | Time | Do you remember the day when we first met? |
OMITTING RELATIVE PRONOUNS
| Examples | ||
|---|---|---|
| the relative pronoun is the OBJECT | Yes | The book which I bought is interesting. = The book I bought is interesting. The man whom I met was friendly. = The man I met was friendly. |
| the relative pronoun is the SUBJECT | No |
Practice Examples
The teacher _____ helps me the most is very patient.
The woman _____ I saw at the conference is a famous author.
I have a friend _____ car broke down yesterday.
2.8Relative Non-Defining / Extra information about a noun already identified
Non-defining relative clauses provide additional information about a noun that is already clearly identified. This extra information could be removed without changing the basic meaning of the sentence.
Always enclosed in commas!
Cannot use that as a relative pronoun
| Introductory words relative pronouns |
Usage | Example |
|---|---|---|
| who | People (subject/object) | My brother, who lives in Paris, is a chef. My cousin, who I haven’t seen in years, is coming to visit. |
| whom | People (formal object) | The author, whom I met yesterday, signed my book. |
| whose | Possession | Sarah, whose car broke down, took the bus. |
| which | Things/animals | The house, which was built in 1920, needs repairs. Her dog, which she adopted two years ago, follows her everywhere. |
| where | Places | London, where I was born, is very expensive. |
| when | Time | December, when it's coldest, is my favorite month. |
Never use that in non-defining clauses!!!
Practice Examples
My brother, _____ lives in Paris, is a chef.
My cousin, _____ I haven't seen in years, is coming to visit.
Sarah, _____ car broke down, took the bus.
2.9Relative Connective / What happened next? How does this relate?
Connective relative clauses refer to the whole previous clause/sentence, not just a single noun. They typically begin with which and express a result, consequence, or additional comment about the entire situation.
Always preceded by a comma!
Test Question: Can you replace which with and this or and that? → If yes, it's likely a connective relative clause.
| Common Connective Patterns relative pronoun + ... |
Example | Comment |
|---|---|---|
| WHICH + Verb | It started raining heavily, which ruined our picnic. | = and this ruined our picnic. |
| She forgot her keys, which meant she couldn't get in. | = and this meant she couldn't get in. | |
| The meeting was cancelled, which surprised everyone. | = and this surprised everyone. | |
| WHICH + BE + Adjective/Noun | He arrived two hours late, which was very annoying. | = and this was very annoying. |
| They offered me the job, which was a great surprise. | = and this was a great surprise. | |
| The train broke down, which was the last thing we needed. | = and this was the last thing we needed. | |
| WHICH + Modal Verb | The restaurant was closed, which could explain why it was so quiet. | = and this could explain why it was so quite. |
| She didn't study for the exam, which might explain her poor grade. | = and this might explain her poor grade. | |
| It's raining again, which should help the garden. | = and this should help the garden. |
Practice Examples
She brought her parrot to the video call, _____ completely derailed the meeting.
He missed the deadline again, _____ annoyed his manager more than he expected.
They cancelled the concert last minute, _____ disappointed thousands of fans.
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